Medical intervention for CO | Cited grounds for refusal and invoking CO (a) |
---|---|
Treatment of unvaccinated children [30]. | Harm or risk to other unvaccinated children and to the immunosuppressed. |
Perception of medical malpractice by the parents of non-vaccinated children for breach of standard of care. | |
Facilitation of the dying process (i.e. euthanasia, medically-assisted suicide) [31]. | Belief in unconditional protection and preservation of life. |
Principle of non-maleficence. | |
Potential negative emotional and psychological impact (e.g. exacerbating inherent fears of death). | |
Fear of legal repercussions and social stigma. | |
Difficulties with confirming patient competence to make decisions (due to lack of experience, lack of time, excessive care burden) in setting of an irreversible outcome. | |
Offer and/or provision of life-sustaining treatment [32]. | Principle of non-maleficence |
Belief in unconditional protection and preservation of life. | |
Belief in unconditional protection and preservation of life from time of conception. | |
Principle of non-maleficence. | |
Principle of prudence: in cases of doubt, it is preferable not to induce / practice abortion. | |
Fear of social stigma. | |
Lack of perceived clinical benefit. | |
Prescription of post-coital contraceptive medications [33, 37]. | Belief in unconditional protection and preservation of life from time of conception. |
Selective sterilization [33]. | Avoidance of means of conception considered “natural” or “correct”. |
Sex change [33]. | Fears of regret after a potentially irreversible outcome. |
Assisted reproduction techniques. | Negative cultural value for future generations (e.g., homosexual couples are not as “good” parents as heterosexual ones) [33, 36]. |
Avoidance of means of conception considered “natural” or “correct” [38]. | |
Destruction of unused frozen embryos [36]. | Fear of potential for misuse (i.e. in research, for infertile couples, etc.). |
Refusal of performing abortions in “objecting institutions” [39]. | Violation of the safety, well-being, and decision-making of patients. |
Forced feeding of prisoners during hunger strikes [36]. | Avoidance of acts deemed to be forms of torture. Principle of autonomy and capacity of decision-making. |
Treatment of individuals of other genders [36]. | Religious exception. |
Use of life-sustaining treatments in patients over predetermined age limits (e.g. 80 years of age) [36]. | Distributive justice (rational use of resources). |
Inclusion of disabled individuals (e.g. children with Down syndrome) on organ transplant waiting lists [36]. | Distributive justice (equitable candidacy for a restricted resource). |
Prescription of potentially harmful medications to individuals with questionable motives (e.g. heroin substitute opioids, which can be sold on black market) [40]. | Indirect harm to third parties. |
Principle of non-maleficence | |
Animal experimentation. | Avoidance of acts deemed to be forms of torture to all sentient beings, especially in the presence of reasonable alternatives [42]. |
Learning curve with animals. |