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Table 1 Methodologies of the healthcare studies discussed.

From: How clinicians make (or avoid) moral judgments of patients: implications of the evidence for relationships and research

Ethnography, participant observation, qualitative interviews, focus groups

Cassell, 2004 [3]; Zola, 1963 [8]; Glaser, 1964 [9]; Roth, 1972 [10]; Varcoe, 2003 [12]; Emerson, 1976 [16]; Jeffery, 1979 [18]; Bolton, 2005 [19]; Willems, 2005 [40]; Monnickendam, 2007 [45]; Fiscella, 1997 [46]; May, 2004 [48]; Wear, 2006 [50]; Hadfield, 2009 [54]; Lyth, 1988 [60]

Survey of clinicians or patients (not both)

Weitzman, 2000 [44]; Malat, 2006 [47]; Mackay, 2005 [53]; Nicolaidis, 2005 [56]; Regan, 2009 [61]; Foster, 2003 [64]; von Hippel, 2008 [66]; Merrill, 1993 [87]

Mixed survey and qualitative interviews

Bowers, 2002 [20]; Regehr, 2002 [129]

Linked qualitative physician and patient interviews

Scott, 2008 [26]

Linked patient and physician surveys with one-year follow-up patient survey

Hall, 2002 [13]

Videotaped visits followed by linked qualitative interviews of patients and clinicians

Katz, 2009 [14]

Observed and audiotaped visits followed by linked qualitative interviews of patients and clinicians

Weissmann, 2006 [110]

Qualitative physician interviews linked to patient record review

Shaw, 2004 [17]

Survey of physicians linked to patient records and angiogram data

van Ryn, 2006 [71]

Standardized patient visits (surreptitiously audiotaped) linked to psychological testing of physicians

Chapman, 2008 [88]

Psychological tests and speech analysis of patients linked to psychological tests and speech analysis of clinicians

Berry, 2008 [93]

Tests of implicit and explicit attitudes linking clinicians and patients (IAT)

Brener, 2007 [65]

Conversation analysis of videotaped visits

Webb, 2009 [51]; Pillet-Shore, 2006 [52]

Web-based trigger written vignette and photo followed by survey and implicit attitude tests (IAT)

Green, 2007 [70]

Trigger videotape followed by countertransference instrument

Schwartz, 2007 [59]

Educator interviews of trainees following observed visits

Smith, 2005 [62]

Trigger written vignette followed by survey and empathy instrument

Tait, 2005 [49]

Controlled experiment randomizing medical students into different teaching programs with quantitative and qualitative performance, psychological, and sociological data

Hammond, 1959 [42]

  1. The first cluster encompasses a diverse group of qualitative methodologies, often mixed within the same study. The survey methodologies in the second cluster also vary significantly. Of note are studies that link specific clinicians to data on their specific patients. IAT = Implicit Association Test.