Ethnography, participant observation, qualitative interviews, focus groups | Cassell, 2004 [3]; Zola, 1963 [8]; Glaser, 1964 [9]; Roth, 1972 [10]; Varcoe, 2003 [12]; Emerson, 1976 [16]; Jeffery, 1979 [18]; Bolton, 2005 [19]; Willems, 2005 [40]; Monnickendam, 2007 [45]; Fiscella, 1997 [46]; May, 2004 [48]; Wear, 2006 [50]; Hadfield, 2009 [54]; Lyth, 1988 [60] |
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Survey of clinicians or patients (not both) | Weitzman, 2000 [44]; Malat, 2006 [47]; Mackay, 2005 [53]; Nicolaidis, 2005 [56]; Regan, 2009 [61]; Foster, 2003 [64]; von Hippel, 2008 [66]; Merrill, 1993 [87] |
Mixed survey and qualitative interviews | |
Linked qualitative physician and patient interviews | Scott, 2008 [26] |
Linked patient and physician surveys with one-year follow-up patient survey | Hall, 2002 [13] |
Videotaped visits followed by linked qualitative interviews of patients and clinicians | Katz, 2009 [14] |
Observed and audiotaped visits followed by linked qualitative interviews of patients and clinicians | Weissmann, 2006 [110] |
Qualitative physician interviews linked to patient record review | Shaw, 2004 [17] |
Survey of physicians linked to patient records and angiogram data | van Ryn, 2006 [71] |
Standardized patient visits (surreptitiously audiotaped) linked to psychological testing of physicians | Chapman, 2008 [88] |
Psychological tests and speech analysis of patients linked to psychological tests and speech analysis of clinicians | Berry, 2008 [93] |
Tests of implicit and explicit attitudes linking clinicians and patients (IAT) | Brener, 2007 [65] |
Conversation analysis of videotaped visits | |
Web-based trigger written vignette and photo followed by survey and implicit attitude tests (IAT) | Green, 2007 [70] |
Trigger videotape followed by countertransference instrument | Schwartz, 2007 [59] |
Educator interviews of trainees following observed visits | Smith, 2005 [62] |
Trigger written vignette followed by survey and empathy instrument | Tait, 2005 [49] |
Controlled experiment randomizing medical students into different teaching programs with quantitative and qualitative performance, psychological, and sociological data | Hammond, 1959 [42] |